JUSt BEFORE CMAS 1887, a young Dutcor cra, in tdies, ention of finding t h.

        1Several traordinary about to begin     o t ally, and    e tomake tentional. omist by training ology. Nor o suppose t t Indies ed t if a people o be found at all, it ed landmass, not in tive fastness of an archipelago.

        Dubois o t Indies on ner ty ofemployment, and t Sumatra    in ant    is most extraordinary in allt    he was looking for.

        At time Dubois ceived o searced of very little: five inplete Neaal skeletons, one partial jaainprovenance, and a ly found by rail acliff called agnon near Les Eyzies, France. Of tal spes, tpreserved ting unremarked on a s ingrock from a quarry in Gibraltar in 1848, so its preservation    unfortunatelyno o appreciated    er being briefly described at a meeting of tarStific Society, it    to terian Museum in London, urbed but for an occasional liging for over ury. t formaldescription of it    ten until 1907, and t named illiam Sollas“en anatomy.”

        So i for t early    to t unfittingly, as it    anoto alocal sceacerest in all tural. to    credit teact, sa ype of e ers of dispute for some time.

        Many people refused to accept t tal bones    at all. August Mayer,a professor at ty of Bonn and a man of influence, insisted t tco of Belgium.

        merely ting inGermany in 1814 and o to die. .     tally    up a cliff, divested s, sealed t of soil. Anot, puzzlial’s ed t it    of long-term froo reject ties en o embrace t singular possibilities. At about time t Dubois ting out for Sumatra, a skeleton found in Périgueux lydeclared to be t of an Eskimo. Quite    Eskimo France ably explained. It ually an early agnon.)It    t Dubois began     instead used fifty victs lent by tcies. For a yeartra, transferred to Java. And team, for Dubois ed tes—found a se of a rinil skullcap. t of a skull, it s tinctly nonures but a mutus (later ceco Pitus) anddeclared it today    as us.

        t year Dubois’s ually plete t lookedsurprisingly modern. In fact, many ants tis modern, and o do is aus bo is unlike any oto deduce—correctly, as it turned out—t Pit.    a scrap of ium and ooote skull, we.

        In 1895, Dubois returo Europe, expeg a triumpion. In fact,    nearlyte reaost stists disliked bot manner in of an ape, probably a gibbon, andnot of any early o bolster edanatomist from ty of Strasbustav Sake a cast of the skullcap.

        to Dubois’s dismay, Sc received far moresympatic attention tten and folloure tour inered, Dubois o an undistinguision as a professor of geology at ty of Amsterdam and for t to let anyone examine hisprecious fossils again. he died in 1940 an unhappy man.

        Mean, tralian-born omy at ty of tersrand in Jo a small butremarkably plete skull of a cact face, a lo—a natural cast of tone quarry on t at a dusty spot called taung. Dart could see at oaung skull    of aus like Dubois’s Java Man, but from an earlier, more apelike creature. s age at t Australopit to Nature, Dart called taung remains “amazingly ed tirely he find.

        ties o Dart to Dubois.

        Nearly everyt    Dart, it appears—a ably presumptuous by dug ts in Europe. Even ralopition, bining as it didGreek and Latin roots. Above all, ed wisdom.

        at least fifteen million years ago in Asia. If    oday o annou ral bones of just didn’t fit    was known.

        Dart’s sole supporter of note    Broom, a Scottisologist of siderable intelled criature. It ao do en.

        ing dubious anatomical experiments on ractable patients. ients died, o dig up for study later.

        Broom , and since    in Souto examiaung skull at first    o it ant as Dart supposed and spoke out vigorously on Dart’s be to no effect. Fort fifty years t taung c textbooks didn’t eveion it. Dart spent five years o publis. Eventually    to publisogetinue ing for fossils). For years, today reized as oreasures of ant as a paper on a colleague’s desk.

        At time Dart made    in 1924, only four categories of a als, and Dubois’s JavaMan—but all t    to ge in a very big way.

        First, in Ced adian amateur named Davidson Black began to poke around ata place, Dragon Bone    was locally famous as a ing ground for old bones.

        Unfortunately, ratudy, tomake medies. e    only guess us bones ended up as asort of C of bicarbonate of soda. te ime Black arrived, but    alone quitebrilliantly annouhropus pekinensis, which quickly became knoeking Man.

        At Black’s urging, more determined excavations aken and many otunately all    ter tta Pearl i of U.S. Marirying to spirit t of try, ercepted by t tes    bo t t    t hem.

        In time, ba Dubois’s old turf of Java, a team led by Ralpe of t Ngandong. Koenigs for a tactical error t oo late. es for every piece of o tically smaso small oomaximize their ine.

        In tified tralopitransvaalensis, Parantype as ypes o fortably overa o add to ten    by a succession of differentnames as paleoants refined, reions. SoloPeople us, and, finally, plainus .

        In an attempt to introdue order, in 1960 F. Clark y ofs of Ernst Mayr and otting to just tralopitionalizingmany of tus. For a time orderprevailed in the hominids.

        2It didn’t last.

        After about a decade of parative calm, paleoant and prolific discovery, ed yet. t by some to be t by ot tobe a separate species at all. ter, ecessor, as    ofaustralopitillotogety types of erature today.

        Unfortunately, almost no ts reize ty.

        Some tio observe tralopite genus called Parantill ens into Australopito a neion, iquus, but most don’t reize praegens as a separatespecies at all. tral auty t rules on ted is by sensus, and ten very little of t.

        A big part of tage of evidence. Siime,several billion ributing a little geicvariability to total ock. Out of t andingof ory is based on ten exceedingly fragmentary, of per it all into truck if you didn’t mind2 in ts members, traditionally called ures(includiines) t are more closely related to us to any surviving cogeties believe t s sh humans and chimps in a subfamily called homininae.

        t is t tures traditionally called ,    on t designation.) he aue sunerfamily whicludes us.

        attersall, tor ofant tural ory in Neal world archive of hominid and early human bones.

        tage    be so bad if tributed evenly time andspace, but of course t. ten in t tantalizing fashion.

        us ed territory from tlantic edge of Europe to t if yo life everyus individual wence we    vouc fill a school bus.

        s of even less: just tial skeletons and a number of isolated limbbones. Somet-lived as our oioainly not be kno all.

        “In Europe,” tattersall offers by ration, “you’ve got ed to about 1.7 million years ago, but t a million years beforet remains turn up in Spain, rigi, and tanot a erribly muc’s from tary pieces t you’re trying to    tories of entire species. It’s quite atall order. e really tle idea of tions species— deserve tarded as separate species at all.”

        It is tc makes eact fromall tens of tons distributed at regular intervals torical record, t emerge instantaneously, as t gradually out of otingspecies. to a point of divergeies are, so tit bees exceedingly difficult, and sometimes impossible, to distinguise us from an early    is likely to be bots    often arise over questions of identification frmentary remains—deg, for instance, s a female Australopithecus boiseior a male homo habilis.

        ittle to be certain about, stists often o make assumptions based on ots found nearby, and ttle more t guesses. As Alan alker andPat Se tool discovery uremost often found nearby, you    early ools ly madeby antelopes.

        Perter typifies tary bundle of tradist    rates and in different dires—time, er apeness. Some auties don’t believeegory at all. tattersall and z dismiss it as amere “ebasket species”—oo ly s.”

        Even t species don’t agree on    never came to anything.

        Finally, but perure is a factor in all tists uraltendency to interpret finds in t most flatters tature. It is a rare paleontologistio getexcited about. Or as Joatedly observes in t isremarkable en t interpretations of nes discoverer.”

        All ts, of course, and nobody likes tue more ts. “And of all ts per s Java Man —a book, it may be    itself devotes long, o attacks on ticular thors’ former close colleague Donald Johanson. here is a smallsampling:

        In our years of collaboration at titute unate, reputation for uable and s, sometimes apanied by tossing around of books orly to hand.

        So, bearing in mind t ttle you    say about ory t    bedisputed by someone some certainly     whis:

        For t 99.99999 pert of our ory as anisms, ralline as cually not tory of c seven million years ago something major happened.

        A group of neropical forests of Afrid began to move abouton the open savanna.

        tralopit five million years t ral is from tin for “soution io Australia.) Australopities, someslender and gracile, like Raymond Dart’s taung curdy and robust, but all fe is    even t successful ories many times lo achieved.

        t famous ralopit eam led by Donald Johanson.

        Formally knoy”) 288–1, ton became more familiarlykles song “Lu ted ance. “S aor, tween ape andhuman,” he has said.

        Luy—just t tall. Sterof some dispute. Sly a good climber, too. Mutirely missing, so little could be said    s suggested it    books describe Lucy’s skeleton as being 40pert plete, t it closer to ural ory describes Lucy as te. television seriesApe Man actually called it “a plete skeleton,” even    .

        A    many of ted. If you    femurfrom a spe, you don’t    to knos dimensions. Strip out all tbones, and total you are left    is called a on. Even by ting standard, and even ti fragment as a full bone, Lustituted only 28 pert of a on (and only about 20 pert of a full one).

        In ts . Jo ed t—more total, and a fairly important oo, oribute    to deal    all events, rat Lucyt isn’t even actually kno sive size.

        ter Lucy’s discovery, at Laetoli in tanzania Mary Leakey found footprints leftby t is t—ts ralopition. ter    for a distance ofover ty-ters.

        tural ory in Ne of t depicts life-sized re-creations of a male and a female Afri plain. t    t suggest    strikiure oft t arm protectively around t is atender and affeg gesture, suggestive of close bonding.

        tableau is done ion t it is easy to overlook tion tvirtually everytprints is imaginary. Almost every external aspect of tional. e ’t even say t t ain t tralopito beaustralopites.

        I old t t because during t toppling over, but Ian tattersall insists    tory isuntrue. “Obviously    kno ride measurements t togeto be touc e an exposed area, so t’s o give tly worried expressions.”

        I asked roubled about t of lise t aken in restrugt’s alions,”    believe o deg details like     toli figures. e simply ’t knoails of    ure and make somereasonable assumptions about t to do again, I t sligures    humans.

        they were bipedal apes.”

        Until very retly it    olicreatures, but noies aren’t so sure. Altain pures (teetance) suggest a possible lis of tralopitomy are more troubling. In tinct attersall and Scz point outt tion of t of t not of tralopit li ed an australopitoan ape femur    p. t,t not only    our aor, s even much of a walker.

        “Lud    loote in anytstattersall. “Only ravel bets o do so by tomies.” Joaccept t of ten, “rees as it is for modern humans.”

        Matters greill in 2001 and 2002 ing family at Laketurkana in Kenya and called Kenyantyops (“Kenyan flat-face”), is from about time as Lud raises ty t it or and Lucy betugenensis, t to be 6 millionyears old, making it t    found—but only for a brief    of C    bones) found a    7 million years old,    it     an early ape andtures and quite primitivebut t, and t.

        Bipedalism is a demanding and risky strategy. It means refaso a fullload-bearing instrument. to preserve trengt beparatively narro immediate sequences and one loerm one. First, it means a lot of pain for any birtly increased dangerof fatality to moto get tig must be born ill small—and    care, wurn implies solid male–female bonding.

        All tiougellectual master of t, but    t have been enormous.

        3Absolute brain size does not tell you everytimes even mud    rouble outting traegotiations. It isrelative size t matters, a point t is often overlooked. As Gould notes, A. afrius imeters, smaller t of a gorilla. But a typical afrius male    at 600 pounds (Gould pp. 181-83).

        So    of ts? Probablyt ters fromto tlantic, diverting s aid leading tot of an exceedingly situdes. In Africa, turning juo savanna. “It    somuc Lud    ts,” Joten, “but t tsleft them.”

        But stepping out onto t t ter, but could also be seeer. Even no preposterously vulnerable in to name is stronger, faster, and toottack, mes. e rategies, ands. e are turet     a distance. e    to be physically vulnerable.

        All ts o ion of a potentbrain, a seems not to ralopit all. t gro t tools.    is straill is t    forabout a million years tools, yet tralopitook advantage of tec hem.

        At one poi appears types coexisting in Africa. Only oo last: s beginning about teionsralopit ted for sometralopit andgracile alike, vaniseriously, and possibly abruptly, over a million years ago. No o Ridley, “e them.”

        ventionally, ture about erally “man tween, and depending on wer, us, and ecessor.

        o use tools, albeit very simple ones. It ive creature, muc its brain    50 pertlarger t of Lu gross terms and not mually, so it ein of its day. No persuasive reason o groime it    big brainsand uprigly related—t t out of ts atediegies t fed off of or promoted braininess—so it er ted discoveries of so many bipedal dullards, to realize t t e bet all.

        “to explain attersall.    of t devour 20 pert of its energy. tively picky in , your brain    plainbecause it    toucuff. It s glucose instead, and lots of it, even if it means s-ces: “tant danger of beied by a greedy brain, but ot afford to let t o death.” A big brain needs more food and more food means increased risk.

        tattersall tionary act. ep if you replayed tape of life—even if you ran it baly a relatively s o te unlikely” tmodern hem would be here now.

        “One of t ideas for o accept,”     tion of anytable about our being    is part of ourvanity as    end to tion as a process t, in effect, o produce us. Even ants teo t up until tly as 1991, ibook tages of Evolution, C.

        L Brace stuck doggedly to t, ao one evolutionary deadend, t australopited a straigon of development so far, t on to a younger, fres seems certain t many of trails t didn’t e to anything.

        Luckily for us, one did—a group of tool users,    of no, it existed from about 1.8 million years ago to possibly as retly as ty thousandor so years ago.

        Acc to tus is tcame before er; everyt came after    to , t to use fire, t to fasools, t toleave evidence of campsites, t to look after tus remely smembers long-limbed and lean, very strong (muger telligeo spread successfully over o otus must errifyingly po, and gifted.

        Erectus or of its day,” acc to Alan alker of Penn StateUy and one of ties. If you o look one in tmigo be    “you    ect. You’d be prey.”

        Acc to alker, it     the brain of a baby.

        Altus    for almost a tury it tered fragments—not enougo e even close to making one full skeleton. So it until araordinary discovery in Afri t its importance—or, at t, possible importance—as a precursor species for modern ed.

        te valley of Lake turkana (formerly Lake Rudolf) in Kenya is no productive sites for early    for a very long time no oo look t    edover t    mig. A teamvestigate, but at first found note oernoon KamoyaKimeu, Leakey’s most renoo yield muc t ofrespect for Kimeu’s instincts and to tonis found a nearly plete usskeleton. It    nine and tructure,” says tattersall, in a    pret. turkana boy was “very empically one of us.”

        Also found at Lake turkana by Kimeu s t clue t us eresting and plext. t of an agonizing dition called aminosis A, old us first of all t us i.

        Even more surprising    t of gro sign of tenderness inion.

        It    us skulls tained (or, in tained) a Broca’s area, a region of tal lobe of ted h speech.

        C ure. Alan alker t y to enable speec ted about as wellas modern cably Richey could speak.

        For a time, it appears, us     seems to y.

        taken literally, suggests t some members of t about time as, or even slig Africa. tists to suggest t per in Africa at all, but in Asia—o say miraculous, as no possible precursor species side Africa. to appear, as it aneously. And anyill o explain    to Africa so quickly.

        ternative explanations for us mao turn up in Asia so soon after its first appearan Africa. First, a lot of plus-or-minusinggoes into ting of early ual age of t timates or t ty of time for Afri erects to find to Asia. It is also entirely possible t oldererectus bones a discovery in Africa. In addition, tes could be ogether.

        Nos. Some auties don’t believe t turkana finds are us at all. t alturkana skeletons ensive, all otus fossils are inclusively fragmentary. As tattersall and JeffreySote iinct    of turkana skeleton “couldn’t be pared ed to it because ts    knourkaons, tus and    temporaries. Some auties insist oncalling turkana spes (and any oter.

        tattersall and Scz don’t believe t goes nearly far enoug er“or a reasonably close relative” t spread to Asia from Africa, evolved intous,and t.

        is certain is t sometime ivelymodern, uprig Afrid boldly spread out auce rapidly, increasing ty-five miles a year onaverage, all s, and ots andadapting to differences in climate and food sources. A particular mystery is    side of ty no even drierin t. It is a curious irony t tions t prompted to leave Africa o do so. Yet someo find to the lands beyond.

        And t, I’m afraid, is ory of is a matter of long and rancorous debate, as we scer.

        But it is    all of tionary jostlingsover five million years, from distant, puzzled australopito fully moder is still 98.4 pert geically indistinguisures your distant aors left be out to take over the world.
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