tIME ABOUt A million and a ten genius of ted took oone and carefully used itto s eardrop-s it    piece of advaeology.

        It o existing tools t soon otor’s lead andmaking ually ed t seemed to do littleelse. “tattersall. “terally ’t move    stepping on t’s strange because te intensive objects to make. It .”

        From a sattersall took do, perand a    inc its    point, and    to me. It epping-stone. As a fiberglass cast it anzania, y-five pounds. “Itely useless as a tool,” tattersall said. “It o lift itadequately, and even t o try to pound anyt.”

        “    used for then?”

        tattersall gave a genial s tery of it. “No idea. It must ance, but we    only guess w.”

        tools, after St. Ac examples eentury, and trastools kno Olduvai Ge intanzania. In older textbooks, Oldoools are usually s, rounded, ones. In fact, paleoants o believe t tool part of Oldoones, wting.

        Noarted to move out of Afrietools ecools, too. t distances. Sometimes took unso make into tools later oo teology.

        But altools    Africa, Europe, and ern aral Asia, t never been found in t. this is deeply puzzling.

        In tologist named ools from t. terly dire across Europe and t to ty of modern-dayCalcutta and Banglades Asia andinto Cools     far beyond t, so o and t abandon it?

        “t troubled me for a long time,” recalls Alan tralian NationalUy in berra. “t round t of Afri t . Yet to accept t you must believe t so far ecever reason, gave it up. It o say t.”

        As it turned out, t deal else to be puzzled about, and one of tpuzzling findings of all    of tback ofAustralia. In 1968, a geologist named Jim Boed caugig out of a crest-sype knote ime, it    ralia for no more t Mungo was anyone doing in sucable place?

        ting,    tat, a dozen miles long, full of er and fis groves of casuarina trees. to everyone’s astonis, tur to be 23,000 years old. Oted to as much as 60,000 years.

        ted to t of seeming practically impossible. At no time since arose oralia not been an island. Any    o start a breeding population, aftercrossing sixty miles or more of open er     ave landfall aed tralia’s nort—t ofentry—o a report in tional Academy ofSces, “t people may    arrived substantially earlier than 60,000 years ago.”

        tions t ’t be ansomost as, t people could even speak 60,000 years ago,mucs of cooperative efforts necessary to build o- andize island tis.

        “t a    kno ts of people before recordedory,” Alan told me ury ants first got to Papua Neerior, in some of t inaccessible terrain opotatoes. S potatoes are native to Sout to Papua Ne k idea. But ain is t people raditionally t, andalmost certainly sion.”

        ts of to term preservation of e goatee and an i but friendly manner. “If it    for a feiveareas like    Africa le. A onea    300,000 years ago. Betnam—t’s adistance of some 5,000 kilometers—t tal in Uzbekistan.” ’s not a o    ion t you’ve got a feive areas for Rift Valley in Afrid Mungo ralia, and very little i’s notsurprising t paleontologists rouble eg ts.”

        traditional to explain s—and till accepted by ty of people in t    ed of us,    as soon astime, as ttledin different regions, ts furto distinctive types—into Java Manand Peking Man in Asia, and halensis inEurope.

        ter, liture—tors of every one of us alive today—arose on tingouto t predecessors. Quite ter of disputation. No signs of slaug autiesbelieve tpeted tors may alsoributed. “Pers tattersall. “telling. tainty is t we are .”

        t modern    ourselves,curiously enoug almost any ot is odd indeed, as tattersallnotes, “t t ret major event in ion—t obscure of all.” Nobody    even quite agree    at about120,000 years ago in t t not everyone accepts t tattersall and Sczmaintain t “ our species still as definitiveclarification.”

        t undisputed appearance of ererranean, aroundmodern-day Israel,    even trinkaus and S-to-classify and poorlyknoals ablisype of tool kitknoerian, o borrow.

        No Neaal remains    tool kits turn up allover t ake is also kno Neaals and modern ed in some fasens of t. “e don’t knoime-sually lived side by side,” tattersall says, but tinued o use Neaal tools—y. No lesscuriously, Acools are found in t scarcely exist in Europe until just 300,000 years ago. Again, ake tools ery.

        For a long time, it    tals before ti,eventually f to its ern margins,    tofall in tinct. In fact, it is no agnons    ofEurope at about time t. “Europe tyempty pla tattersall says. “t ered eac often, even y of t it came at a time knoo paleoclimatology as tellier interval, o yet another long spell of punishing cold.

        ever it    dreo Europe, it    ther.

        In any case, t Neaals crumpled in tition from nerains against t least a little. Neaals    tougens of tions t no modern side a feists and explorers    of temperatures routinely fell to 50 degreesbelohern England.

        Neaals naturally retreated from t of it, but even so t    least as bad as a modern Siberiao be sure—aNeaal y    as a species tly resilient and practically iructible. t least a , over aretcar to Uzbekistan,wty successful run for any species of being.

        Quite ters of disagreement anduainty. Rigil tietury ted antal    ooped, sessential caveman. It    t prodded stists to residertologistnamed Camille Aramb te from tairplane. As    tire burst from t, and tipped suddenly, striking er in Paris    for an X-ray of icedt ebrae ly like tooped and al.

        Eitive or Neaal’s posture , it ter. Neaal vertebrae    simian at all. It cterly als—but only some of time, it appears.

        It is still only    Neaals lacked telligence or fiber to pete onequal terms i’s slender and more cerebrally nimble ne from a ret book: “Modern ralized tage [tal’s siderably ier pter clotter firesaer ser; meanuck    requiredmore food to sustain.” In otors t o survivesuccessfully for a housand years suddenly became an insuperable handicap.

        Above all t is almost never addressed is t Neaals    ly larger ters for Neaals versus 1.4 formodern people, acc to one calculation. t for alt. I believe I speak trut nowion is suc made.

        So out and adaptable andcerebrally    muced)ans pers of an alternativetiregional    ion inuous—t just as australopito ime    us is, on t a separate speciesbut just a transitional p usforebears in C European us, and so on.

        “Except t for me tus,” says t’s a term s usefulness. For me, us is simply an earlier part of us. I believe onlyone species of    Africa, and t species ishomo sapiens.”

        Oppos of tiregional t it, in t instance, on t itrequires an improbable amount of parallel evolution by    t distant islands of Indonesia, iregionalism ences a racist vie antook a very longtime to rid itself of. In t named Carleton    of ty of Pennsylvania suggested t some modern races    sources in, implying t some of us e from more superior stock tably to earlier beliefs t some modern races suche Afri “Bushmen”

        (properly tralian Abines ive thers.

        ever ay personally , tion for many people    someraces are inly more advanced, and t some ially stitutedifferent species. tinctively offensive noable places until fairly ret times. I ime-Life Publications in 1961 called ticles in Lifemagazine. In it you    find sucs as “Rly as25,000 years ago and may or of to t of ly desded fromcreatures t o homo sapiens.

        tically (and I believe sincerely) dismisses t    and ats for ty of ion by suggesting t t of movement bad fortures and regions. “tosuppose t people only    in one dire,”    t certainly sic material terbreeding. Ne replace tions, tuation to e peoples for t time. “t meetings of different species, but of th some physical differences.”

        you actually see in ts, is a smootinuoustransition. “tralona in Greece, dating from about 300,000 yearsago, t ter of tention among traditionalists because it seems in some    in ot    t    to find in species t han being displaced.”

        Oers erbreeding, but t isnot at all easy to prove, or disprove, from fossils. In 1999, ar Pal found ton of a c four years old t died 24,500 years ago. ton    ain arcal, ceristics: unusually sturdy legboeetinctive “stern, and (t everyone agrees on it)an iion at ture exclusive toNeaals. Erik trinkaus of ason Uy in St. Louis, ty onNeaals, annouo be a    modern alsinterbred. Otroubled t tal and moderures more blended. As one critic put it: “If you look at a mule, you don’t    endlooking like a donkey and the bad looking like a horse.”

        Ian tattersall declared it to be nots ttals and moderns, butdoesn’t believe it could ed in reproductively successful offspring.

        1“I don’t kno are t different and still in the samespecies,” he says.

        itists urned increasingly to geic studies,in particular t knoococ by t ty of California at Berkeley    it ures t lend it a particular venience as a kind of molecularclock: it is passed on only t doesn’t bee scrambled ernal DNA ion, and it mutates about ty times faster t easier to deted folloic patterns over time. By trag tes of mutation t tic ory aionships of whole groups ofpeople.

        In 1987, team, led by te Allan ilson, did an analysis of mitoically modern    140,000 years and t “all present-day    population.” It ionalists. But to look a little more closely at ta. One of t extraordinary points—almost too extraordinary to credit really— tudy ually Afri-Ameris, o siderablemediation in t fe tesof mutations.

        By 1992, tudy ed. But tecialysistio be refined, and in 1997 stists from ty of Murad analyze some DNA from tal man, and time tood up. tudy found t tal DNA rongly indig t tiioals and modern o multiregionalism.

        1One possibility is t Neaals and agnons    numbers of t only arises    not quite identical join. I an offspring ively useless number of c, a sterile mule.

        te 2000 Nature and otioed on a Socy-ted t all modern    100,000 years and came from a breeding stock of no more teror of teitute/Massacts Institute of tecer fenome Researcmodern Europeans, aly as 25,000 years ago.”

        As legeic variability—“ty in one social group of fifty-five cire ion,” as oy    it—and this would explain why.

        Because ly desded from a small founding population, t been timeenougo provide a source of great variability. It seemed a pretty severebloo multiregionalism. “After tate academic told ton Post,“people    be too ed about tiregional ttleevidence.”

        But all of te capacity for surprise offered by t Mungo people of erralian National Uy reported t t ofted at 62,000 years—and t to be“geically distinct.”

        to tomically modern—just like you a carried ainct geieage. oc s Afri t past.

        “It turned everyt.

        to turn up. Rosalind ioicist at titute of Biological Antudyiaglobingenes in modern people, found ts t are ong Asians and tralia, but    in Africa. t genes, sain,arose more t in Africa, but i Asia—long before modern o at for to say t aors ofpeople noingly,t geo speak—turns up in modern populations inOxfordshire.

        fused, I    to see    titute, o udent days. ralian, from Brisbane inally,    at time.

        “Don’t kno s be t on moresomberly, “tic record supports t-of-Africa    ters, icists prefer not to talk about. ts ofinformation t o us if only and it, but    yet.

        e’ve barely begun.” So be dra on ence of Asian-ingenes in Oxfordsells us ot tuation is clearly plicated. “All    tage is t it is very untidy and    really know why.”

        At time of our meeting, in early 2002, anotist named Bryan Sykes    produced a popular book called ters of Eve in oco be able to traearly all living Europeans back to afounding population of just seven ers of Eve of title—ime knoo sce as to eacailed personal ory. (“Ursula    carefully, as if not quitecertain    give    foro popularize a difficult subject,” sfully. “And te possibility t .” S on more ily:

        “Data from any single gene ot really tell you anytive. If you follooc ake you to a certain place—to an Ursula or tara or if you take any ot of DNA, any ge all, and traceit back, it akeyou someplace else altogether.”

        It tle, I gat of London and findiually it ends at Jos, and cluding from t anyone in London musttland. t    equally to    omap tes. “No single gene is ever going to tell you tory,” she said.

        So geic studies aren’t to be trusted?

        “Orust tudies    trust are t people often attaco them.”

        S-of-Africa is “probably 95 pert correct,” but adds: “I t of a disservice to sce by insisting t it must be oo turn out to be not sarting to suggest t tiple migrations and dispersals indifferent parts of tions and generally mixing up t’s never going to be easy to sort out.”

        Just at time, ts questioning ty of claimsing t DNA. An academig in Nature ed ologist, asked by a colleague op and annou it ed ture article, “largeamounts of modern ransferred to tuseless for future study. I asked    t    certainly aminated already,” s ami. Breatami. Most of ter in our labs ami. e are all so get a reliably    spe you o excavate it in sterileditions and do tests on it at te. It is trickiest t toinate a spe.”

        So sreated dubiously? I asked.

        harding nodded solemnly. “Very,” she said.

        If you and at once     is to be found a little beyond to t of Nairobi. Drive out of ty on toUganda, and t of startling glory h a hang glider’s view of boundless, pale green Afri plain.

        t Rift Valley, eic rupture t is setting Africa adrift from Asia. y milesout of Nairobi, along t site called esailie,    lake. In 1919, long after tnamed J. . Gregory ing ts ctered o    sites of Aanufacture t Iantattersall old me about.

        Uedly in tumn of 2002 I found myself a visitor to traordinary site. Iogeting some projects run by ty CAREIional, but my s, k in    volume, ed a visit to esailie into the schedule.

        After its discovery by Gregory, esailie lay undisturbed for over team of Louis and Mary Leakey began an excavation t isn’tpleted yet.    te stretco ten acres or so, o 200,000 years ago. today tool beds are sered from t of tsbeios and fenced off o disce opportunisticsging by visitors, but otools are left just hem.

        Jillani Ngalli, a keen young man from tional Museum    as guide, told me t tz and obsidian rocks from ones from t a pair of mountains in tance, in opposite dires fromte: esailie and Ol Esakut. Ea kilometers, or six miles, ao carry an armload of stone.

        to sucrouble only did ty stones siderable distao t, pere. tions revealed t t axes were brougo be resharpened.

        esailie ory; o stayed in business for a million years.

        Various replications    tricky and labor-intensive objects tomake—even ice, an axe ake o fas, curiously, t particularly good for cutting or casks to    ion t for a million years—far, farloence, muuouscooperative efforts—early people came in siderable o ticular site to makeextravagantly large numbers of tools t appear to less.

        And us because tes,    t. But to base a clusioe over sixty years of searcy of esailie. ime t t appears t elsewo die.

        “It’s all a mystery,” Jillani Ngalli told me, beaming happily.

        t 200,000 years ago arted to bee t and c is today. Butby time t to get itsfirst real master race, he same again.
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